Cappadocia :  History, Photographs & Information 

Taken from the book “ Cappadocia in your pocket ”
written & photographed by archeologist Murat Gulyaz, all rights reserved to the writer.

THE LOCATION OF CAPPADOCIA

Strabon, a writer of antiquity, describes the borders of the Cappadocian Region, in his 17 volume book "Geographika" (Geography-Anatolia XII, XIII, XIV) written during the reign of Roman Emperor Augustus. Cappadocia was discribed as a very large area surrounded by the Taurus Mountains in the south, by Aksaray in the west, Malatya in the east and all the way up to the Black Sea coast in the north, though, present day Cappadocia is the area covered by the city provinces of Nevşehir, Aksaray, Niğde, Kayseri and Kırşehir. The smaller rocky region of Cappadocia is the area around Uçhisar, Göreme, Avanos, Ürgüp, Derinkuyu, Kaymaklı and Ihlara.

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS

Rock Structures

Mount Erciyes, Hasandağ and Göllüdağ were active volcanoes in early geological periods. Alongside many other volcanoes, eruptions of these volcanoes started in the Early Miocene Era (10 million years ago) and have continued until the present day. Plateaus, mostly shaped by the lava of the bigger volcanoes, were continuously altered by the eruptions of smaller volcanoes. Starting in the Early Pliocene Period, the rivers in the area, especially the Kızılırmak (Red River) and local lakes, contributed to the erosion of this layer of tufa stone, eventually giving the area its present day shape.

Formation of Fairy Chimneys

The interesting rock formations known as "fairy chimneys," were formed as the result of the erosion of the tufa layer, sculpted by wind and flood water running down the slopes of the valleys.

Water found its way through the valleys, creating cracks and ruptures in the hard rock. The softer, easily erodable material underneath was gradually swept away. The slopes then receded, and in this way, conical formations protected with basalt caps were created. The fairy chimneys with caps, mainly found in the vicinity of Ürgüp, have a conical shaped body with a boulder on top of it. The cone is constructed of tufa and volcanic ash, while the cap is made up of hard, more resistant rock such as lahar or ignimbrite. Various types of fairy chimneys are found in Cappadocia.  Among these are those with caps, cones, mushroom-like formations, columns, and pointed rocks.

Fairy chimneys are generally found in the valleys of the UçhisarÜrgüp- Avanos triangle. Some are located between Ürgüp and Sahinefendi, and around the town of Çat in Nevşehir. Others can be found in the Soğanlı valley in Kayseri, and in the village of Selime in Aksaray.

CAPPADOCIA IN THE PREHISTORIC PERIODS

Prehistoric Period

Evidence of Prehistoric cultures in Cappadocia can most easily be found around Köşkhöyük/Niğde, Aşıklıhöyük/Aksaray, and in the Civelek cave near Nevşehir. Excavations in these three areas are still taking place.

Civelek Cave

Civelek cave is in the vicinity of Civelek village, situated 4km west of Gülşehir, in the province of Nevşehir. Access can be gained by means of a gallery which extends downwards for 14m into the limestone cave. There are many calcite crystal stalagtites between 5 and 15cm in length, hanging from the sections of the cave ceiling. The main part of this ceiling is 22 by 11m. During excavations carried out by Nevşehir Museum and cave experts from Italy, hand made cups, cooking pots of various sizes, spindles, and tools made from stone and bone dating from the Chalcolithic Period (5500-3000 BC) were unearthed from the floor of the cave, and especially among the collapsed rocks. In addition to this excavation, surface excavations in the surrounding caves unearthed tools made from obsidian and flint.

CAPPADOCIA IN THE HISTORIC PERIODS

Pro-Hittite and Assyrian Trade Colonies (3000BC - 1750BC)

Mining reached its peak of development in Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age. Major developments were observed in Northern Anatolia towards the end of this period. Between 2000BC and 1750BC, Assyrian merchants from northern Mesopotamia formed the first commercial organizations by establishing trade colonies in Anatolia. The center of these colonies was at Kanesh Kharum near Kültepe in Kayseri province. Another important commercial market place which was referred to in documents, is the Kharum Hattush at Boğazköy.

Anatolia was rich in gold, silver, and copper, but lacked tin which was essential for the manufacturing of bronze as an alloy. For this reason, tin was one of the major trading materials, as well as textile goods and perfumes. The merchants had no political dominance, but were protected by the regional Beys. Fortunately for the Assyrian merchants, writing was also seen for the first time in Anatolian in this period. From the "Cappadocia tablets", cuneiform clay tablets on which ancient Assyrian was written, it was learned that merchants paid a 10% road tax to the Bey, received a 30% interest for their debts, and paid a 5% tax to the Anatolian kings for goods they sold. The same tablets tell us that they sometimes married Anatolian women, and the marriage agreements contained clauses to protect the women from their husbands. Assyrian merchants also introduced cylinder seals, metallurgy, their religious beliefs, Gods, and temples to Anatolia.

Hittite Period (1750-1200 BC)

The Hittites, coming from Europe via the Causcasus, and settling in Cappadocia around 2000BC, formed an empire in the region merging with the native people of the area. Their language was of Indo-European origin. The capital of the Hittite kingdom was at Hattushash (Bogazkoy), and the other important cities were Alacahöyük and Alisar. In the Cappadocia region, engraved stone monuments dating back from the Imperial Period can be found near water sources and strategic routes. By means of these rock monuments, the routes used by the Hittite kings to reach the southern countries can be determined. Within the borders of Kayseri, located to the south of Mount Erciyes, are the rock monuments of Fraktin, Tasçı and ‹mamkulu, serving several purposes; they were intended to venerate the gods, to show the gratitute of the great King (Hattusili III) and Queen (Puduhepa) to the Gods; as well as to show the extent of the Empire's power.

Late Hittite Kingdom (1200-700 BC)

After the Phrygians destroyed all the important towns in Central Anatoila eliminating the Hittite Empire, fragments of the Late Hittite Kingdoms sprang up around central and Southeast Anatolia. The Late Hittite Kingdom in Cappadocia was the Tabal kingdom which extended over Kayseri, Nevşehir and Niğde. Rock monuments from this age, with Hittite hieroglyphics can be found at Gülşehir-Sivasa (Gökçetoprak), Acıgöl-Topada, and Hacıbektaş- Karaburna.

Persian Period and The Kingdom of Cappadocia (585BC-332BC)

The Cimmerians ended the Phrygian reign in Anatolia, and were then followed by the Medes (585BC) and the Persians (525BC). The Persians divided the empire into semi-autonomous provinces and ruled the area, using governors who were known as "Satraps". In the ancient Persian language, Katpatuka, the word for Cappadocia, meant "Land of the well bred horses". Since the religion they were devoted to was the Zoroastrian religion and fire was considered to be divine, the volcanoes in the area, Erciyes and Hasandağ were sacred for them. The Persians constructed a "Royal Road" connecting their capital city to the Aegean region passing through Cappadocia.The Macedonian King Alexander defeated Persian armies twice, in 334 and 332 B.C., and conquered this great Empire.

Roman Period (17AD - 395AD)

The wars came to an end in 17AD when Tiberius conquered Cappadocia and placed it under Roman rule. After the conquest, the Romans reconstructed the road to the west which was of both commercial and military significance. During the Roman era the area saw many migrations and attacks from the east. The area was defended by Roman military units known as "Legions". During the reign of Emperor Septimus Severus Cappadocia's economy flourished, but later the capital, Kayseri (Caesera) was attacked by Sassanid armies from Iran. Emperor Gordianus III ordered the construction of defensive city walls. During this time some of the first Christians were moving from the big cities to villages. In the 4th century, when Kayseri was a flourishing religious centre, the rocky surroundings of Göreme

were discovered and adopting the teachings of St. Basil, Bishop of Caesarea (Kayseri), the Christians began to lead a monastic life in the carved out cliffs and fairy chimneys of Cappadocia.

Byzantine Period (397AD - 1071AD)

When the Roman Empire divided into west and east, Cappadocia fell under the Eastern Roman Empire. In the early 7th century there were severe wars between the Sassanid and Byzantine armies, and for 6 or 7 years the Sassanids held the area. In 651 Caliph Omer ended the domination of the Sassanids, and the Arab Ommiades began to attack. The long lasting religious debates among sects reached a peak with the adoption of the Iconoclastic view by Leon III, who was influenced by Islamic traditions. Christian priests and monks who were in favour of icons began to take refuge in Cappadocia. The Iconoclastic period lasted over a century (726-843). During this time although several Cappadocian churches were under the influence of iconoclasm, the people who were in favor of icons were able to continue to worship comfortably.

Seljuk Period (1071-1299)

The native land of the Seljuks, established by Seljuk Bey from Oğuz Turks, was central Asia. The Seljuks, who converted to Islam spreading towards north in the 10th century, tried to extend their power fighting against the tribes which had not been converted.

The defeat and the capture of the Byzantine Emperor Romanos Diogenes in 1071 by Alparslan, the great grandson of Seljuk Bey, resulted in the decline of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of a new era in the history of Anatolia. In 1075 the Anatolian Seljuk State was founded. In 1082 Kayseri was conquered by Turks and Cappadocia came under Seljuk rule. Anatolia, which was an important region where Christianity had spread, became part of Islamic world which covered a large area; from North Africa, to Middle Asia and to the Near East. The conquest of Anatolia by Seljuk Turks did not influence the administrative authority of the patriarchy. We know this because in inscriptions from the 13^th century found in the church of St George in the Ihlara region, names of the Seljuk Sultan Mesud II and the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus are treated with admiration. As a result of the decline of the Anatolian Seljuk State at the end of the 13th century, small beyliks (domains of minor rulers) came into being in different parts of Anatolia. In 1308, the Ilkhanids, of Mongolian origin, invaded Anatolia and destroyed Kayseri, one of the important cities in the Cappadocia Region. Seljuk Sultans were controlled by the Mongolians and could not act independently. From then on, Anatolia was administered by the beyliks founded by different Turkish tribes.

Ottoman Period

The Region of Cappadocia was very peaceful also during the Ottoman Period. Nevşehir was a small village in the province of Niğde until the time of Damat İbrahim Pasha. At the beginning of the 18th century, especially during the time of Damat İbrahim Pasha, places like Nevşehir, Gülşehir, Ozkonak, Avanos and Ürgüp prospered and mosques, külliyes (a collection of buildings of an institution, usually composed of schools, a mosque, mental institutions, hospital, kitchen, etc.) and fountains were built.

The Christian people living in the area were treated with tolerance in the Ottoman Period as in the Seljuk Period. The 18th century church of Constantine-Helena in Sinasos-Ürgüp, the 19th century church built in honor of Dimitrius in Gülşehir and the Orthodox Church in Derinkuyu are some of the best examples of this tolerance.

FIRST TRAVELLERS IN CAPPADOCIA

The Cappadocia region, in which many diverse civilizations lived was discovered by the Europeans at the beginning of the 18^th century. In 1704, Paul Lucas who was charged by Louis XIV, king of France, had declared that he had seen pyramid formed strange houses near Halys that had charming doors, stairs and large windows to illuminate the rooms. Lucas's fantastic description was reacted to with both suspicion and interest in the West. C. Texier whom arrived in Cappadocia between 1833 - 1837 after Paul Lucas, stated that "nature had never showed itself to a foreigner's eyes so extraordinarily".

The English traveler Ainsworth who arrived in Cappadocia in 1837 described his confusion with these words "Turning up a glen which led from the river inland, we found ourselves suddenly lost in a forest of cones and pillars of rock that rose around us in interminable confusion, like the ruins of some great and ancient city. At times, these rude pinnacles of rock balanced huge unformed masses upon their pointed summits but still more frequently the same strangely supported masses assumed fantastic shapes and forms. At one moment, it suggests the idea of a lion and at another of a bird and again of a crocodile or a fish."

Scientific researches and publications started toward the end of the 19th century. The French resarcher/priest G. De Jerphanion who made observations for the French Union of Churches in 1907-1912, investigated the memorial rock churches, monasteries and the wall painting in them systematically.

NATURAL, HISTORICAL AND RELIGIOUS CENTRES OF CAPPADOCIA

Uçhisar

Uçhisar is situated at the highest point in the region, on the Nevşehir-Göreme road, just 7km from Nevşehir. The top of the citadel provides a magnificent panorama of the surrounding area. Many rooms hollowed out into the rock are connected to each other with stairs, tunnels and passages. At the entrances of the rooms, there are millstone doors, just like the ones in the underground settlements, used to control access to these places. Due to the erosion in places of this multi-leveled castle, it is unfortunately not possible to reach all the rooms.

The fairy chimneys to the west, east and north of Uçhisar were hollowed out and used as graves during the Roman period. Inside these rock cut tombs, the entrances of which generally face west, are klines or stone slabs on which the bodies were laid. Beside tombs, many dove-cotes were hollowed out into the castle, fairy chimneys around it and on the cliff faces. The local farmers, although they did not have much land, were in need of good crops. Knowing that dove excrement could help them with this problem and increase the amount of crop they would get, farmers hollowed out dove-cotes into the sides of fairy chimneys and on the cliff faces. Later the fertilizer was gathered and used in the fields.

Göreme (Maccan/Avcılar)

Göreme, situated 10km from Nevşehir, is found in the area surrounded with valleys, within the Nevşehir-Ürgüp-Avanos triangle. The old names for Göreme are Korama, Matiana, Maccan and Avcilar. It is believed that Göreme and its surroundings were used as a necropolis by the people of Vanessa (Avanos) in the Roman Periods. Both the monumental twin pillared Roman tomb hollowed out into a fairy chimney in the centre of Göreme and the presence of numerous tombs in the vicinity support that idea. Göreme, an important Christian centre in the early years of the Middle Ages, was a bishopric administered by Mokissos near Aksaray in the 11th and 13th centuries.

Kılıçlar Kuşluk Church (of Mother Mary)

This church lies on a steep slope to the south of the Kılıçlar Church, and behind the Tokalı (Buckle) church, about 250m. from the Open Air Museum. The rectangular nave is covered by two barrel vaults of different widths and heights. The church houses portraits of the saints, and four bible scenes.

Kılıçlar Church

This church is situated 600m NW of the Göreme Open Air Museum in the Kılıçlar valley. It has a cruciform plan with four columns and a central dome. The arms of the cross are barrel vaulted. The ceilings in the West corners are flat, whereas those in the East corners are domed. There are three apses. The walls are richly decorated with frescoes illustrating a long narration from the Bible. The church dates back to the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th centuries.

THE GÖREME OPEN AIR MUSEUM

By the end of the 2nd century a large Christian community had formed in Cappadocia. It is known that there were two bishoprics at that time; one in Kayseri, which, for a long time, continued to be a Christian center in the region and the other in Malatya. In the 3^rd century, priests with good character changed the region into a lively centre of Christian activity. In the 4th century Cappadocia became known as the land of the three saints; The Great St. Basil, Bishop of Kayseri; his brother St. Gregory of Nyssa, and St. Gregory of Nazianus. These three men created a new unity in Christian thought, and many of St. Basil's thoughts and actions are still important today. St. Basil founded small, secluded settlements far away from villages and towns. Daily worship was carried out under the supervision of a preacher. These groups were not, however, privileged groups separated from the community like similar communities in Egypt and Syria. St. Basil is important in that he introduced worship within the community in the churches of Cappadocia. Göreme Open Air Museum is the place where this kind of religious education was started. The same model was then introduced in Soğanlı, Ihlara and Açıksaray.

Church Architecture in Göreme

The one nave barrel vaulted plan common for Göreme's churches was the most convenient architectural style for the religious communities and those living in seclusion in the area. These buildings were also seen as suitable areas for graves. The transversal rectangular plan originated in Mesopotamia, and it is likely that these buildings were constructed for groups of foreigners settling in the area. In Göreme, the only church built with two naves is the church of St. Eustathios, however, the churches in Soğanlı and Ihlara quite often feature two naves. Building according to the basilica plan with three naves is also rare in Göreme, this being a preferred technique for the Bishopric churches such as Durmuş Kadir. These churches were big and the architecture was very ornate, and for this reason this style was not popular in rocky areas.

Tokalı (Buckle) Church

This is the oldest known rock-cut church in the region, and comprises of four sections: The Old Church with one nave; the New Church; the Lower Church under the Old Church; and the Parecclesion to the north of the New Church. The single-naved, barrel-vaulted Old Church, built in the 10th century, today acts as the entrance to the New Church. Its apse collapsed when the New Church was added to the east wing. Frescoes are to be found on the vault and at the top of the walls. The life of Jesus is told on separate panels on the vault, running from left to right.

The New Church is transversally rectangular with a simple barrel vault. On the east wall there are four columns joined by arches, behind which there is a raised corridor in front of the main apse and two side apses. On this barrel vaulted nave is the story of Jesus in chronological order in mainly bright red and blue colours. The dark blue colour serves to distinguish the Tokalı Church from the other churches.

On the transversal nave are scenes from the life of St. Basil, portraits of some saints and pictures of the Miracles of Jesus. The Church is dated back to last decade of the 10th century and the first decade of the 11th century.

Nunnery and Monastery

The 6-7 storey rock mass to the left of the museum entrance is known as the "Nunnery". The dining hall, kitchen and some rooms on the first floor, together with the ruined chapel on the second level, can still be visited. The church on the third story, which can be reached through a tunnel, has a cruciform plan, a dome with four columns and three apses. The templon on the main apse is rarely found in Göreme's churches. Besides the fresco of Jesus, painted directly onto the rock, designs painted in red can alse be seen. The different levels of the monastery are connected by tunnels, and "millstone doors", such as those found in the underground cities, were used to close off these tunnels in times of danger. The tunnels connecting the levels of the Monastery, to the right, have eroded making it possible to only visit some of the ground floor rooms.

Chapel of St. Basil

This church is situated at the entrance to the Göreme Open Air Museum. Graves are to be found in the columned narthex area. The nave is transversally rectangular and barrel vaulted, and has three apses situated on the left, long side of the rectangular nave. The church dates back to the 11th century.

Elmalı (Apple) Church

This church featuring four columns, nine domes and three apses is of the closed cruciform type. Access to the church is through a tunnel on the north side. The original entrance was on the west side.The original decorations in this church consist of geometrical designs and crosses painted in red ochre directly onto the rock. This technique is also found in the chapels of St. Barbara and St. Basil. The church has been dated back to the mid 11th century and the beginning of the 12th century.

Chapel of St. Barbara

This church is situated behind the rock housing the Elmalı (Apple) Church. It has a cruciform plan, with two columns. The north, south and west arms of the cruciform are barrel vaulted, and the centre, the east arm, and the east corners are domed. There are a main, central apse and two side apses. Motifs were painted in red directly onto the rock. The walls and the dome are decorated in a variety of motifs including geometrical patterns, mythological animals and military symbols. The walls also have motifs resembling stonework. This church dates back to the second half of the 11th century.

Yılanlı (Snake) Church (of St. Onuphorius)

The main section is transversally rectangular and barrel vaulted, whereas the extended space to the south, which houses the graves, has a flat ceiling. The apse was hollowed out of the long wall on the left and the church was left incompleted. The entrance to the church is from the north. Portraits of the respected saints of Cappadocia are on either side of the vault. The church dates back to the 11th century.

Opposite the entrance is a portrait of Jesus holding the Bible in his left hand. The donor of the church is pictured beside Jesus. On the east side of the vault are St. Onesimus, St. George and the Dragon, St.Theodore, and Helena holding the True Cross with her son Constantine the Great. On the west of the vault is the long haired, naked St. Onuphoius behind a palm tree, with St. Thomas in a sanctifying position beside him, and St. Basil holding a book.

Onuphrius while he was dying, as he was the best example of moral values and self control. St. Onuphrius is depicted as naked, long haired and broad chested, and a palm tree is in front of him.

Larder/Kitchen/Refectory

These three areas lie side by side and are connected by passageways. The first section was used as a larder, with recesses hollowed from the rock being used as storage spaces. In the kitchen there is a "tandir", a type of oven still found in local village houses. The final section was the refectory. A long table carved from the rock extends from the left of the entrance. This would have seated 40-50 people. To the right of the table is a winery hollowed in the floor used for squashing grapes.

Karanlık (Dark) Church

To the north, a winding stairway leads into the rectangular, barrel vaulted narthex of the Dark Church. This church has a cruciform plan, the arms of which are cross vaulted. There is a center dome, with four columns and three apses. This church gets its name from the tiny window in the narthex which only allows a small amount of light in. Due to the absence of light the colours of the frescoes are still vivid. The church and the narthex are richly decorated in scenes from the Bible and the story of Jesus. As in Elmalı (Apple) and Çarıklı churches, there are also scenes from the Old Testament. The church dates back to the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries.

Chapel of St Catherine

Situated between the Karanlık (Dark) Church and the Çarıklı Church, the Chapel of St. Catherine has a free-cross nave and narthex. The central bay is covered by a dome and the cross arms are barrelvaulted. Its apse is closed by a templon. The narthex has nine floor graves and two arcosolia (burial niches). Only in the nave of the chapel are some decorations with figures. The pendentives are decorated with carvings. The Chapel of St. Catherine, built by a donor named Anna, dates back to the 11th century.

Çarıklı (Sandals) Church

This two columned church, is cross vaulted, and has three apses and four domes. The well preserved frescoes show the life of Jesus, Hospitality of Abraham, and images of the saints and the donors of the church. Although it resembles the Karanlık (Dark) and Elmalı (Apple) Churches, the scenes of Way of the Cross and Descent from the Cross make this church different from the others. The figures are generally large. The footprints under the Ascension scene give the church its name, which means "with sandal". The church dates back to the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries. The center dome houses a picture of Jesus the Pantocrator with the busts of angels in the insets. On the central apse is Deesis, on the north apse Mary and the Baby Jesus, and on the south apse, a picture of St Michael.

ÇAVUŞİN

One of the oldest settlements in the area, Çavuşin is situated 2km from Göreme, on the Göreme - Avanos road. The Church of St. John the Baptist offers a panoramic view of the village. This church and its paintings date back to the 5th century, making it the oldest church in the region. It had a large courtyard which is unusual for Cappadocia, this has eroded away however. Christian missionaries and communities once lived in the old Çavuşin valley, now in ruins. There are 5 churches at Gulludere, close to Çavuşin. The Haçlı Church (with the Cross), near the valley, was also used for defence against the Arab raiders.

Çavuşin (Nicephorus Phocas) Church

This barrel vaulted church, with one nave and three apses, is situated 2.5km from Göreme on the Göreme-Avanos road. Its narthex is collapsed. The church was built around 964/965AD.

AVANOS (Venessa)

The ancient name of the town of Avanos, which lies 18km to the northeast of Nevsehir, is Vanessa. The main economic activity in the town is pottery, a craft dating back to the Hittite period. The red clay which is worked by local craftsmen comes from the residue in the Kızılırmak river.

The 13th century Sarihan Caravansary and the Ottoman Alaaddin mosque are interesting pieces of architecture in the area.

ZELVE

Zelve is situated on the northern slopes of Aktepe, 1km from Paşabağları (Monks' Valley) and 5 km from Avanos. The ruins at Zelve are spread over three valleys, which also house several pointed fairy chimneys with large stems. The valley was inhabited until 1952. Apart from monasteries and churches, houses, a tunnel joining two of the valleys, a mill, a mosque and several dove-cotes are found in the valley. Like the ones in Uçhisar, Göreme and Çavuşin, it is not known when the rock dwellings in Zelve were first inhabited but it was an important settlement and religious area during the 9th and 13th centuries. The first seminaries to priests were given here. The Direkli Church (with Columns), situated at the bottom of the slopes, dates back to the early years of monastery life in Zelve. The main decorations are high relief crosses belonging to the Iconoclastic doctrine. Some of the most important churches in the valley are Balıklı (Fish), Üzümlü (Grape) and Geyikli (Deer), belonging to the Pre-Iconoclastic period.

Paşabağları (Monks' Valley) and St. Simeon Dwelling

Formerly known as the "Monks' Valley" (Rahipler Valley), Paşabağları is situated about 1 km from the Göreme-Avanos road. Many fairy chimneys with multiple stems and caps, some housing chapels and living areas can be found here, this style being unique to this area. A chapel dedicated to St. Simeon, and a hermit's shelter is built into one such fairy chimney with three heads.

The entrance of the cell, which can be reached with a chimney like narrow tunnel, is decorated with antithetical crosses. They hollowed out the chimneys from top to bottom creating rooms 10-15m high. They lay on beds made from rock, fed by locals via bucketed ropes to their lofty perches.

ÜRGÜP

One of the most important centers in Cappadocia is Ürgüp, 20km to the east of Nevşehir. Like Göreme, Ürgüp also had different names in history; Osiana (Assiana) in the Byzantine Period, Başhisar during the Seljuk Peroid, Burgut Castle in the Ottoman Period and Ürgüp as of the early years of the Republic.

Also an important religious center during the Byzantine Period, Ürgüp was a bishopric of the rock-cut churches and monasteries found in the villages, towns and valleys around Ürgüp. In the 11th century, Ürgüp was an important citadel connecting with Niğde and Konya, important towns of Seljuks. The two buildings from this period are the Altıkapılı (Six Gates) and Temenni Tepesi (Wish Hill) tombs found in the town center.

Pancarlık Church

Pancarlık valley lies to the south of Ortahisar, and to the right of the road leading from Ürgüp to Mustafapaşa. The church has one nave, one apse and a flat ceiling. The frescoes in this church are well preserved, and most of them are painted on a green background.

At first glance it appears that two different artists were responsible for the paintings, but on closer inspection it is apparent that the same artist painted all the frescoes. In the church, the scenes from the Bible follow one another in sequence and portraits of saints in insets border these scenes on both sides. The church dates back to the first half of the 11th century.

ORTAHISAR

Ortahisar citadel, built both as a defence and as a settlement, is situated 6km from Ürgüp, on the road to Nevşehir. Typical examples of the area's civilian architecture can be found among the houses skirting the citadel. The sides of the valleys are littered with carved out storage areas used for preserving local products such as apples and potatoes, as well as oranges and lemons brought from the Mediterranean. Very interesting churches and monasteries can be found in the surrounding valleys. Among these are, Sarıca Church, Cambazlı Church, Tavşanlı Church, Balkan Deresi Churches and Hallaç Dere Monastery.

Üzümlü (Grape) Church

The Grape Church is located at the beginning of the Red Valley, to the west of the town of Ortahisar, about 1 km from the road. The fairy chimney, in which the Grape Church is found, is hollowed out like a monastic complex, where monks lived. The lower level of the fairy chimney is the church and the upper level is a chamber which can be seen only from the outside due to the partial collapse of the walls with a cross relief on the ceiling. The church has a square plan with one apse and one nave. At the far end of the nave is a grave niche. This church is also called The Church of St. Nichitas due to the presence of an inscription of St Nichitas in the dedication inscription of the church.

The nave with a flat ceiling is decorated with rich embelishments. The orange colored surface is decorated with a cross composed of circles and rectangles and bunches of grape and geometrical motifs around it. The border is embellished using medallions with Maltese crosses. Although it is not definite, the common belief is that the church dates back to the 8th or 9th century.

MUSTAFAPAŞA (Sinasos)

Mustafapaşa, 6km to the south of Ürgüp, was inhabited by Greek Orthodox families until the beginning of the 20th century. The houses dating back to the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries display fine examples of stonework. The Gömede valley, to the west of Mustafapaşa, resembles a small version of the Ihlara valley. As at Ihlara, the walls of the valley house churches and shelters carved from the rock, and a river runs through the valley. The important churches and monasteries around Mustafapaşa are, the church of Aios Vasilos, the Church of Constantine-Helene, churches in the Monastery Valley and, the Church of St. Basil in the Gömede valley. There is also a medrese built during the Ottoman period and displaying fine examples of stone masonry and woodcraft.

TATLARİN

The village of Tatlarin, located 10 km north of the town of Acıgöl, is one of the most interesting places in Cappadocia because of both its underground settlement and churches and the architecture of its houses.

Its underground settlement, located on the hill called "the castle" by the locals of the village, was first discovered in 1975 and opened to the public in 1991. The size of the chambers in the underground settlement, only two floors of which can be visited; the presence of the toilets, which also can only be found at the Guzelyurt Underground Settlement; the abundance of the depots for food and of the churches make one think that this place was either a garison or a monastic complex rather than an underground settlement.

Tatlarin Church

The church is on the slope of the hill, called "the castle", in the town of Tatlarin, to 10km north of Acıgöl. The narthex of the church, which has two naves and two apses, is collapsed. The well preserved scenes are separated from each other with dividers. The background is dark grey whereas with figures colours like purple, mustard color and red are used.

NEVŞEHİR

Nevşehir's ancient name was "Nyssa", but in the Ottoman period it was renamed "Muşkara". The son in law of Sultan Ahmet III, the Ottoman Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasa was born in Nevşehir and therefore took a great interest in its construction. The small village with 18 houses, once under the administration of Ürgüp, was transformed with the building of mosques, fountains, schools, soup kitchens, inns and bath houses, and its name was changed from Muşkara to Nevşehir, which means New City.

Damat İbrahim Paşa Külliyesi

Kurşunlu mosque, situated in the Damat Ibrahim Paşa complex, was completed in 1726. The mosque which is situated in the centre of a court with three gates, has an elegant minaret 44 m in height. The name "Kurşunlu" comes from the sheets of lead covering the main dome. Most of the internal decorations consist of floral motifs. A Medrese (College of Islamic theology), library, soup kitchen and a bath house are contained in the same complex. The citadel found on the highest point of the city was constructed in the Selcuk Period to defend and protect the caravan trails.

GÜLŞEHIR

The old name of Gülşehir, situated on the southern bank of the Red River, 20 km from Nevşehir, is Arapsun and in ancient times it was called "Zoropassos". The Ottoman Grand Vezier Karavezir Mehmet Seyyid Pasha did the same thing in Gülşehir as Damat Ibrahim Pasha did in Nevşehir and a külliye was built in the town which had only 30 houses. The complex consisted of a mosque, a madrassa and a fountain.

Açıksaray Ruins

This important area of ruins is situated 3 km from Gülşehir. There are numerous rock cuttings including Roman tombs, and churches dating back to the 9th and 11th centuries in this important bishopric. The mihrab in “the Mescid of Hacı Bektaş-i Veli”, as it is called by locals, is interesting as it is a well preserved islamic building. To the west side of the mescid, with a square-like plan, are some quite large niches. Rock formations in the shape of mushrooms are unique to this area.

Karşı Church (of St John)

The two floor church of St. John, found on entering Gülşehir, houses a church, wine cellar, graves, water channels and living quarters on the lower floor, and a church decorated with biblical scenes on the upper floor. The upper church has one apse, and is barrel-vaulted. Apart from those on the apse, the well-preserved frescoes were covered in a layer of black soot.

The scenes of Jesus and the Bible are in the form of friezes within the borders. Yellow and red colors have been used on a black background. On the niche vault and on the sides, floral and geometrical patterns were used. On the west and south walls the Last Judgement can be found, a scene rarely depicted in Cappadocian churches. According to the inscription on the apse, the church is dated to 1212.

HACIBEKTAŞ

This town gets its name from Hacı Bektaş-i Veli, who made an effort to unite Turkish customs and culture with the Islamic faith, and worked hard to protect the Turkish language and culture from foreign influence and degeneration. Born in the 13th century in Khorassan, bordering today's modern day Iran, Haci Bektas was educated by Ahmet Yesevi, a learned thinker of that time. Haci Bektaş migrated west and arrived in Anatolia, where he settled in Hacimköy near Sulucakarahöyük. His arrival coincided with the political and economic deterioration of the Anatolian Selcuk state, during which time the central authority collapsed. Hacı Bektaş travelled from city to city and from village to village to promote Turkish unity.

Hacı Bektaş-i Veli Museum

The Hacı Bektaş-i Veli Museum houses the tombs of Hacı Bektaş-I Veli and Balım Sultan, a mosque, bathhouse, kitchen, laundry, guest house, several fountains, and three courtyards. Through a big arched door, one enters the first courtyard, Nadar. "Üçler Cesmesi," The Fountain of the Three, built in 1902, the

bathhouse, and the laundry are in this courtyard. The entrance to the second courtyard, Dergah, is called "Üçler Kapısı", the Gate of the Three. Sent from Egypt by the daughter of Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha in 1875, The Lion Fountain, built in 1554, is on display in this area. In addition, the guesthouse, soup kitchen, and mosque built during the time of Mahmut II, the Ottoman Sultan, are in Dergah.

The entrance to the third courtyard, Hazret, is called "Altılılar Kapısı", the Gate of the Six. This garden contains the tombs of dervishes, Horasan Erleri -the Khorassan Men-, Güvenç Abdal, Hacı Bektaş, and Balım Sultan, Hacı Bektaş' successor. Hacı Bektaş's tomb features Seljuk architecture and designs. The sarcophagus is covered with a green quilt and is adorned with ornamental candlesticks.

IHLARA VALLEY

This valley is fourteen kilometers long and ranging from 100 to150 meters high. Ihlara Valley stretches from Ihlara to Selime. Situated 40 kilometers from Aksaray, the canyon we see today was eroded by the Melendiz River, which found its way through cracks in the basalt and andesite lava, deposited by Mt. Hasandağ. Historically, the Melendiz River was called "Potamus Kapadukus," which means "River of Cappadocia." This valley proved to be an ideal place for monks to worship in seclusion, as well as provide a safe hideaway and place of defence for people during times of invasion. There are numerous dwellings, churches, and graves built into the valley walls, some of which are connected by tunnels and corridors.

SOĞANLI VALLEY

This valley is situated near Yeflilhisar in the province of Kayseri, 40km southeast of Ürgüp, and 25km to the east of Derinkuyu. Fractures and collapses during earthquakes have added to erosion, resulting in deep valleys and canyons. Soğanl› Valley, which is divided into two, has been occupied since the Roman period. The Romans used the conical rock formations as graves, and later, Byzantines transformed them into churches. The frescoes in the church date back to the 9th and 13th centuries. Karabaş, Yılanlı, Kubbeli and the Church of St. Barbara (Tahtalı) are notable churches in the valley.

SUBTERREANEAN SETTLEMENTS OF CAPPADOCIA

One of the cultural highlights of the Cappadocia Region is the abundance of subterranean settlements commonly referred to as "underground cities." Because the region had been subjected to frequent raids, these cities were built to provide people with places where they could take temporary shelter during times of danger. Carved out of the soft tufa rock within a 25,000 square km region, the underground cities were connected to many houses, by way of hidden passages. To provide greater protection from enemies, the people laid traps in various places of the rock dwellings and strategically fashioned the entryways in hard-to-reach locations. There are 150-200 known underground and cliff settlements of varying sizes in the Cappadocia region, but due to the sheer size of the region, it is possible that not all have been discovered.

Structural Features

Long passages and labyrinth-like tunnels connect hundreds of rooms in the underground cities. Small hollows carved on the wall surfaces of the corridors and rooms served as holders for candles and linseed oil lamps, providing both light and heat to the residents. Because no oil presses have been found inside any underground settlement to date, it is assumed that linseed oil was made outside of the settlements. The long, low, and narrow corridors restricted enemy mobility. Millstones separating one area of an underground settlement from another provided extra defence. These millstones, which can be opened only from the inside, are 1-1.5 m in height, 30-50 cm in width, and 200-500 kg in weight. Holes bored in the millstones' centers were used to open and close the passageways, visually track enemies, and to allow one to attack with arrows and spears from behind the closed passage. Wooden doors within the settlements, conversely, were used mainly for privacy and were secured by only two or three bolts. In the Ozkonak Underground Settlement, unlike the others, small vertical holes above the tunnels, next to the millstone, allowed those in the settlement to spear or pour hot oil on their enemies.

The ground level floors of the underground settlements were usually used as stables. Parts of the stable walls were hollowed out for fodder for the animals. Holes for tying the animals were also carved into the rock.  Taking the number of the kitchens into consideration, it is obvious that the kitchens were communal areas. Special ovens called "Tandır" are found in many of these kitchens. This type of oven is still in use in the small towns and villages of Cappadocia. Large earthenware jars used for storing barley, wheat, corn and various vegetables, as well as beer and wine, are also found in the underground kitchens.

Communication holes, no bigger than 10-15 cm in diameter, are found on the floors and the ceilings of the rooms between the various levels. What they did about the toilet facilities is still unknown. Toilets are found in only two of the underground settlements, Tatlarin and Güzelyurt (Gelveri).

History

There are other prehistoric settlements in the Cappadocia Region, and it is still unknown whether or not these settlements were associated with the underground cities. It is believed that prehistoric man lived in man-made rock shelters consisting of only a couple of rooms.

SELJUK REMAINS IN CAPPADOCIA

During the prosperous periods of the Anatolian Seljuks, the Sultans had the settlements connected to one another with a well-planned road network containing bridges, castles, caravansaries, medresses (Islamic religious schools), mosques, and tombs. These foundations were administered by sultans; viziers, and the rich, who had sufficient funds, mainly built these road networks. Although influenced by Arabian and Iranian art and culture, the Seljuks had their own style of art.

MOSQUES

Taşkınpaşa Mosque

Taşkınpaşa Mosque, located in the center of the village of Damsa, near Ürgüp, dates back to the Caraman period. Its portal, which has been painted white, is decorated with geometrical motifs. The mosque, built using cut stone, has three naves in the direction of Mecca and eleven barrel vaults. The arches are on the pillars with marble capitals. The mosque has a flat roof covered with earth. Its wooden mihrab, the only surviving example of its type, is now on display at the Ankara Ethnography Museum. The two-lined border around the mihrab is decorated with arabesque designs and verses from the Koran.

CARAVANSERAIS

During the Seljuk Period, the most important three factors in trade were roads, caravans, and inns. The caravans during long journeys, stopped at inns to rest in the evenings. They set off again after having met to their own and their animals' needs.

Especially during the times of Seljuk Sultans, Kılıçarslan II and Alaaddin Keykubat I, the construction of these buildings accelerated and security along the trading roads was provided by the state. Any loss of merchandise was compensated for by the state, a sort of insurance system. During this period, both domestic and foreign trades prospered, and as a result, the Sejuks, already strong economically, became politically strong also.

For defence purposes, the walls resemble castle walls. Some of the best examples of Seljuk stonemasonry can be seen at the entrance called "Taç Kapı." Although dragon, lion motifs, and floral designs were frequently used to decorate the caravansary entrances, the examples in the Cappadocia region are generally bare geometrical designs. The doors were made of iron.

Caravansaries were built along roads running from Antalya to Konya to Kayseri to the land of Turkomans, which pass through Erzurum and Tabriz. They also stretch from the Black Sea region to Iraq, via Amasya, Tokat, Sivas, Malatya, and Diyarbakır, at intervals of 30-40 km, a one-day camel trek. One of the most beautiful examples of a caravansary is in the region of Cappadocia, between Aksaray and Kayseri.

Sarıhan

Located in the valley of Damsa, 5 km southeast of the town of Avanos and 6 km east of Ürgüp, Sarıhan was built upon the orders of Izzettin Keykavus in 1249. It covers an area of 2000 m square. Yellow, reddish pink and light brown regular stone blocks were used as building material in Sarıhan. The monumental and inner portals were decorated with stones of two different colors. The upper parts of the outer portal are partly collapsed. Its domed mescid (small mosque), unlike other caravansaries, was built above the monumental portal. The doorway of the mescid, facing the courtyard, is decorated with squinches and mukarnases. To the left of the large courtyard is a portico with a fountain and to the right are sleeping and bathing accommodations. The hall where animals and their keepers stayed is similar to the ones in Aksaray, Sultanhan, and Ağzıkarahan. The oculus, seated on pendantives, is quite plain. The upper parts of the han have collapsed in places, and were restored to its original state in 1991. Sarıhan is one of the most modern examples of Sultahhans, as the Seljuk Sultans did not build hans.

MEDRESSES

Medresses were Seljuk schools which educated students in culture, science, and art. Like today's high schools and universities, students studied four main subjects: religion, law, language, literature, philosophy, and sciences. There was not an established timeline for education; students completed their studies at different rates since the requirement was to finish books. Educational sessions would start after the morning prayer and continue until the noon prayer. Students would then retreat to their study cells surrounding the courtyard. There was usually no school on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays.

Physically linked to mosques and mescids, the first medresses were special places for education. Later on, Seljuk Sultans had medresses built, usually as medical schools, named after their wives as well as themselves. Researchers think that the origin of the architecture of the medresses came from Egypt and Central Asia. Anatolian Seljuk Medresses, which started appearing in the 12th century, had either open or covered courtyards. Medresses with open courtyards are more common. Two-storied medresses may have from one to four eyvans, which are three-walled vaulted antechambers. A second type of medresse has a large central place covered with a big dome, instead of an open courtyard. Some of the important medresses in Cappadocia are Hunat Hatun and Giyasiye Medresses in Kayseri, and Taşkınpaşa Medresse in Nevşehir.

Taşkınpaşa Medresse

Located by the side of the Ürgüp-Soğanlı road in the village of Damsa (Taşkınpaşa), 20 km south of Ürgüp, a medresse, built by the Karamanids, a fourteenth-century dynasty in Konya that dominated this part of Anatolia for almost 250 years, measures 22.60 m by 23.85 m.

The portal, the mihrab in its mescid, and the door and windows were laid using cut stone, whereas rough stones were used in building the walls. Although the upper story has completely collapsed, the flight of stairs to the left of the entrance indicates that it had at least two stories. The impressive stonemasonry on the western portal is classically Seljuk in style. The portal is decorated entirely with geometrical and floral designs. The inscription above the entrance has been lost. To the right of the entrance, with a baskethandled arch, is the mescid of the medresse. The mihrab, like the portal, is decorated with embellished floral motifs. The upper part is embellished with rows of palm leaves, whereas floral designs are used in the double lined border.

TURBES

Turbes, which are defined as "tombs covered by domes" in Arabic and "a building with a dome shaped roof" in Persian, are mausoleums built for important people such as sultans and emirs. These buildings were inspired by the art of tent-making of the Turks in the land of the Turkomans and then applied in architecture. Prior to Islam, the dead were washed and wrapped in shrouds, this detail not varying, despite the different burial traditions they had. The corpses were mummified, put into coffins, and kept in the tents until the following spring or autumn. This burial tradition resulted in the emergence of mausoleums. The first turbes were built using bricks or rough stones. Later examples used cut stone. There are also a great number of turbes consisting of both stones and bricks.

Some turbes were individual buildings, and some were built in mosque and medresse complexes. Turbes usually have two stories. The lower floor, access to which is gained by a flight of stairs, forms the base of the turbe. This is the cell-like tomb room where the mummified corpse was either put into a sarcophagus or buried.

The important turbes in the Cappadocia region are the Doner Kumbet, the Hunad Hatun Turbesi, The Çifte Turbe in Kayseri, the Hüdavent Hatun Turbe in Niğde, the Taşkınpaşa Turbe, and the Altı Kapılı Turbe in Ürgüp.

CAPPADOCIAN CIVIL ARCHITECTURE

Nineteenth century Cappadocian houses, built on hillsides, were either carved out of the rock or built from large cut stones. Soft volcanic stone, the only architectural material in the region, is easily cut and shaped. It hardens on contact with air to form a very resilient material. The abundance of stone in the area, and the ease of its use, has created a building technique unique to Cappadocia. Wood is used for courtyard gates and the house doors. Rosette and ivy patterns are used as decorations above the arched doors. The areas between floors are decorated in up to three rows of rosettes, fans, stars, palm leaves, and weather vanes and stylized plant patterns. Windows are grouped in twos and threes and stylish plant patterns are also used as decorative borders. Two types of window are used, either two separately opening panes, or guillotine style.

Both types of houses contain numerous living rooms, a kitchen, cellar, storeroom, an oven (tandır), wine vat, etc. Niches found in the guest rooms are decorated with paintings of vases full of flowers under silken wavy curtains, scenes from nature, or women filling and carrying water vessels. These scenes are painted on plaster. The most interesting examples of local architecture are from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Examples can be found all over the region, but particularly in Ürgüp, Ortahisar, Mustafapaşa, Uçhisar, Göreme, Avanos, Güzelöz, nearby Başköy, in the province of Kayseri, and Güzelyurt, near the region of Ihlara.

CAPPADOCIAN DOVECOTES

Dovecotes were hollowed out of the upper parts of almost all the valleys and fairy chimneys. The dovecotes generally face east or south. Although most of the dovecotes in the region of Cappadocia date back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there are few examples dating to the 18th century. These small buildings do not attract much attention, but bear Islamic paintings rarely found in the Cappadocia region.

Dovecotes were carved, not to catch and eat pigeons, but to use their excrement as fertilizer. The local farmers have used pigeon droppings as fertilizers for generations, which explain the sheer number of dovecotes found in the region. Four or five rows of small niches, or recesses, were carved for pigeons to land on. Wooden perches were also used when needed. Tunnels or ladders were used to reach the dovecotes hollowed into the high cliff. Some churches and monasteries were turned into dovecotes by closing up the entrances and the windows.

Dovecote facades were generally embellished in accordance with the tradition of the time and in harmony with the social life. The dyes were extracted from trees, flowers, wild grass, and soil with ferrous oxide. In addition to this, the red dye, widely used in decorating dovecotes, was extracted from a kind of soil/mud known as "Yoşa" in the region. Research indicates that Cappadocian artists who lived in the 18th and 19th centuries preferred motifs that were simple, yet mystical.

SOBESOS ANTIQUE CITY

Situated between Ürgüp-Soganlı road, 30 kilometers to Ürgüp,in Şahinefendi village. Due to the excavations, the meeting hall and the bath complex have been discovered. The meeting hall is about 400 square meters in size and consist of three rooms. In one of the rooms is a grave and the second one is with mosaics. The main room is supported by the columns, the floor is covered with mosaics and the walls are plastered. It is estimated that the building was constructed during the middle of the 4th century or in the 5th century A.D. The ground of the mosaic room has been completely cleaned and it is covered with mosaics of numerous colored stones.

An open air chapel was constructed on the top of the meeting hall near the east room. It was coarsely built with materials that were supplied from the main hall. Based on the date of a coin that was found during excavation, the chapel estimated to be from the middle of the 6th century. 30 meters north of the building, a mosaicked bath complex of the city was completely unearthed. Apoditorium (dressing room) with mosaics, a caldarium (steam room), a large section of the cistern that was supported by a semi-circle wall were excavated.